Wenja's Roots: Dwani (Sounds), Part 5

In our final post about the creation of the Wenja sound system, we'll look at perhaps the simplest component : the vowels.

It turns out that the vowels of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) were pretty straightforward, too. Unlike English & French which have close twenty vowels, there were only a handful of them in PIE. 

Three of the vowels of PIE, *e, *a, and *o, merge to Wenja a, as you can see in the following words:

• *e : *h₁es ‘is’ > Hitt. ēšzi, Ved. ásti, Gk. estí, Lat. est, OCS jestŭ, Wenja hasa 'is'
• *a : *sal- ‘salt’ > Ved. sal-ilá- ‘salty’, Gk. hál-, Lat. sal-, Arm. ał, OIr. salann, Wenja sal(i) 'salt'
• *o : *g^wow- ‘cow’ > Lyc. wawa-, Skt. gáv-, Gk. bó(w)es ‘cows’, Lat. bouēs, Arm. kov, OCS gov-ęždĭ ‘bovine’, Wenja gwaw(i) 'cow'

Why is this? Well, to a large extent the vowels *e and *o would alternate with each other in the same word, with *e used in some situations and *o in others. This is a process called ablaut. We even find remnants of this within English.

1. sit ~ sat         < PIE *sed- ~ *sod-, Wenja sada
2. sing ~ sang   < PIE *sengwh- ~ *songwh-, Wenja sangwa
3. bind ~ band  < PIE *bhendh- ~ *bhondh-, Wenja banda

The left form in each pair is the present tense of the verb, with the right one being either the past tense or a noun form. All of this is easily explainable by reconstructing the vowel *e as the vowel of the present tense, with *o being used in the past and nouns. (Note: this is a huge oversimplification, but is mostly true.)

A number of Indo-Europeanists believe that while the vowels *e and *o participated in ablaut alternations in late PIE, in proto-PIE (what Wenja was designed to be, in part) this alternation did not yet exist. This may sound like a stretch, but there are lots of examples of vowel alternations being created in the history of language from all over the world. 

We don't have to go far -- check out some more recent examples of vowel alternations in English:

1. keep ~ kept < *keept -- the "eh" vowel was historically the same vowel as the < ee > one (before the Great Vowel Shift)
2. man ~ men < *maniz -- the "eh" vowel in men used to be the same as the < a > one (before Germanic Umlaut occurred)

In PIE there were other vowels as well, such as the high vowels *i & *u :

• *i : *mizd^ho- ‘reward’ > Av. mižda-, Gk. mist^hós, Goth. mizdo, OCS mĭzda, Wenja mizda
• *u : *nu ‘now' > Sanskrit nu, Latin nunc, English now, Wenja nu 'now, and'

These vowels remained as such in Wenja, resulting in a three-vowel inventory within Wenja. Such inventories are quite common among the languages of the world, found in languages like Arabic.

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There were also long vowels in PIE, vowels that were twice as long as short ones. In English we don't really make a distinction between the two, at least not in making contrasts between different words. But you'll note the difference in vowel length in a pair of words such as bet ~ bed, where the < e > vowel is roughly twice as long in bed. Because the actors were primarily monolingual English speakers, the team decided to get rid of vowel length all together.

• *ē : *h₃rḗĝ-s ‘king’ >  Latin rēx, Old Irish rí, Wenja fraji (not fraaji)
• *ā : *nās- ‘nose’ > Latin nasus, English nose, Wenja nas (not naas)
• *ō : *swesōr ‘sister’ > Latin sorōr, Sanskrit svasAr, English sister, Wenja swasar (not swaasar)

And finally, there were the diphthongs in PIE. Diphthongs are complex vowels that consist of two vowel-like elements squished together. In English we have sounds like < i > (as in "I" and "sky"), < o > (as in "no" and "toe"), and < ow > (as in "cow" and "bout") which begin with a vowel that transitions to another vowel. In PIE there were six diphthongs altogether (excluding long diphthongs). And since *e, *a, and *o all became a in Wenja, these six diphthongs collapsed together to two : ay & aw.

Diphthongs: *e, *a, *o + *u & *i

• *ei : *ḱei- ‘lie down’ > Skt. śaye ‘lies’, Gk. keĩmai ‘I lie’, Wenja chaya 'lie down'
• *ai : *kaikos ‘blind’ > Lat. caecus, Goth. haihs ‘one-eyed’, Wenja kayka 'one-eyed'
• *oi : *mei- ‘exchange’ > OLat. moenus ‘duty, tribute, payment’, Wenja maya 'trade, exchange, replace'
• *eu : *sreumn̥   ‘river’ > Gk. rheũma, English stream, Wenja shrawman 'river'
• *au : *h₂sauso- ‘dry’ > Gk. haũos, Lith. saũsas, English sear, Wenja shisawsa 'dry'
• *ou : *mouro- ‘idiot’ > Gk. mōró-, Sanskrit mūrá-, Wenja mawra 'stupid, foolish; idiot'

Lastly, let's talk about the rhythm of the language. Many people have noticed Wenja's sharp, staccato rhythm, which directly contrasts with the sing-songy nature of Izila. We believe that PIE was exactly like Izila; as a pitch-accented language, its speakers differentiated stressed syllables through pitch, not loudness. The stress moves back and forth in both PIE & Izila, as any syllable could be stressed.

Not so in Wenja. Using linguistics terminology, Wenja's rhythm is trochaic, with its trochees assigned at the left side of the word. This means that in a word with two syllables, the stress will fall on the first syllable : bada 'dig' = [BA da].  In a word of four syllables, the stress will fall on the first and third syllables, with the stress being strongest on the first syllable: bada-bada 'keep on digging' = [BA da BA da].

This results in a language with a very "caveman" rhythm. But this wasn't created out of whole cloth. In fact, there's a theory by Paul Kiparsky whereby the "default" accent is assigned to the leftmost syllable of the word, all things being equal. It's called the "Basic Accentation Principle" (the BAP for short), and is becoming increasingly more popular within the field. I personally am a fan of it. It's very heady stuff, but if you're interested in reading about it more, check out this paper of Kiparsky's.

Well, that's it for sounds.  Next up: verbs!

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Wenja Language: Winja waychasu "In the Wenja village", part 2

We'll continue discussing words important for the Wenja village. Our focus for today: how do you say "father", "mother", "friend", etc.?

Social Relationships

1. shajan "leader, chieftan", from PIE *h₂aǵ- 'to lead', directly cognate with English agent, from Latin agent- "the leading one". Root directly found in Wenja shaja "lead".
2. fraja "direct, guide; rule", from PIE *h₃reǵ- 'to rule; direct, guide', as seen in English regular, ruler, regulation; also connected to Wenja frashni "queen" (Izila hrégnis), derived from *h₃reḱs "king" (Latin rex, German Reich, etc.)
3. tawtash "civilization; nation; empire", from PIE *teutah₂ 'people; tribe', English total (< Latin totus "all"), German Deutsch (Teut-onic), Old Irish túath "people, nation"
4. pashtriya "homeland", from PIE *pəh₂triyah₂ "homeland; (literally) fatherland" (= Latin patria), built to "father", see below
5. bandu "connection; kinsman", from PIE *bʰendʰu 'tribesman' (= Sanskrit bandhu) ; cf. PIE *bʰendʰ- 'connect' > Wenja banda ''join; unite" (= English bind, bond)
6. janhas "family; tribe, clan; lineage; community"; from PIE *ǵénh₁os "kin; tribe; family", an s-stem derivative of *ǵénh₁- "be born" (Wenja janha). 
7. sakush "friend; ally", from PIE *sókʷh₂-, as seen in Sanskrit sakhā, Old English secg, and Latin socius (> English social, society)
8. chamyugi "mate (husband; wife)", from PIE *ḱom-yug- (= Latin coniunx > English conjugal)
9. samlaga "mate (lover)", from sm̥-logʰos "the one possessing the same bed, the one who shares your bed", Serbian sulogŭ, Greek álokhos
10. jamsha "marry", "marriage, wedding; union", from PIE *ǵemH- "marry (as a man)", Greek gaméō (> English poly-gamy, mono-gamy, etc.), Latin gener, Sanskrit jā́mātar- 'son-in-law'; in PIE there was another root *sneubh- "marry (as a woman)", as seen in Latin nūbere "id." (> English nubile), Greek nýmphē (> English nymph)
11. lashwa "people", from PIE *lah₂wo- "people" (= Greek laós), likely related to Hittite laḫḫu- "pour"
12. jantu "person; individual", from PIE *ǵenh₁tu (= Sanskrit jantu), another derivative from *ǵénh₁- "be born"
13. karwa "boy", from PIE *korwo- (= Greek koũros)
14. karwi "girl", from PIE *korwih₂- (= Greek ko(u)rē)
15. putila "child", from PIE *putlo- 'child', seen in Sanskrit putra (as in Rajaputra "son of the king")
16. nawashna "newborn, baby", from PIE *newoǵno- "newborn", found in Greek neognos "baby"; this word is famous among Indo-Europeanists, as it is a rule of laryngeal deletion *newoǵnh₁o- > *newoǵno- 
17. yuwanka "young", from PIE *yuHenko- "young" > Latin iuvenis (> English juvenile), Lithuanian jaunas, Old Irish oac, and of course English young, German jung
18. tachas "offspring", from PIE *teḱos "offspring" (= Greek tékos "child")
19. pashtar "father", from PIE *pəh₂ter- "father'; Latin pater (English pater-nal, pater-nity), Greek pater, Sanskrit pitar-, English father
20. mashtar "mother", from PIE *mah₂ter-; Latin mater (English mater-nal, mater-nity), Greek mēter, Sanskrit mātar-, English mother
21. brashtar "brother", from PIE *bʰrah₂ter-; Latin frater (English frater-nal, frater-nity), Greek phrāter, Sanskrit bhrātar-, English brother
22. swasar "sister", from PIE *swesor-; Latin soror (English soror-ity), Sanskrit svasar-, English sister
23. mashtarpashtar "parents", a "dvandva" compound composed of "mother" + "father"
24. swachwara "parent-in-law", from PIE *sweḱwr-; German Schwäher, Latin socrus, Russian svekróvĭ, Sanskrit śvaśrū́- all "mother-in-law"
25. swasarbrashtar "siblings", a "dvandva" compound composed of "brother" + "sister"

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You've padded your emergency fund, paid off your debt and saved up a few thousand dollars – $5,000 to be exact – that you're ready to invest. But is it best to put it in a mutual fund, certificate of deposit, index fund or exchange-traded fund?

"If you're asking what's the best way to invest $5,000, it's kind of like asking what should I have for dinner tonight? Well, it depends," says Greg McBride, chief financial analyst of Bankrate. "What do you like? What don't you like? Do you have any allergies? What are you in the mood for? The same thing [applies] here."

Before you get to specifics, such as how much risk you can stomach or what to choose off the menu of investments, start with the basics.

"The first question you need to ask yourself is, 'When do I need to spend that money?'" says Manisha Thakor, founder and CEO of MoneyZen Wealth Management. "My rule of thumb is investing is something you do for the long run, which I would define as a minimum of five years and ideally 10-plus years. Once you are sure it's long-term money, now you're ready to really get into the nuts and bolts."

To help you delve into those nuts and bolts, we asked financial experts for advice on the best way to invest your $5,000. They suggested options for both the short and long term, if you're hoping to grow that money for retirement decades down the road.

[See: The Best 10 Ways to Buy Tech Stocks.]

Short term

Online savings account. The best place for money you need in a moment's notice is an online savings account, McBride says. Even though interest rates for online savings accounts are low – hovering around 1 percent – they "pay the best returns relative to the savings account offers among all the financial institutions," he says. The returns currently compare to those of CDs, but without the early withdrawal penalties.

CDs and money market accounts. If your time horizon is less than five years, Thakor recommends putting the money in a CD with a maturity date that matches your goal. This option may be ideal if you have a low risk tolerance, since CDs are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. up to $250,000 per depositor. The downside? You can't touch those dollars for a predetermined time without paying a penalty.

Alternatively, money market accounts, which are also insured by the FDIC, earn slightly less interest than CDs, but you can withdraw the money at any point. Just keep in mind that interest rates are generally inversely correlated with access to your money. As Thakor puts it: "If you want unlimited access to your money, you'll get slightly lower rates. If you don't mind tying it up for a defined period of time, which is what you do with a CD, then you can get a slightly higher rate."

Given their low yields, CDs and money market accounts are better for shorter-term investments, since they don't always keep up with the cost of inflation. "Even though on paper it might look like you're protecting your principal and [your] deposit is growing a little bit in value, you're actually losing ground because the purchasing power is not holding," says Paul Granucci, a financial solutions advisor with Merrill Edge.

[Read: Lessons from 7 Women Who Broke Wall Street's Glass Ceiling.]

Long term

Actively managed mutual funds. Investors with a longer time horizon can afford to take on more risk for a greater return by putting their money in the stock market. Mutual funds offer an easy way for investors to gain exposure to a broad range of stocks. If picking stocks makes you nervous, fear not. With actively managed funds, a fund manager makes all the decisions for you, including what sectors of the economy to invest in and which companies are undervalued or poised for growth. But beware: Mutual funds come with fees. The average actively managed stock fund charges an annual fee of 1.26 percent, according to fund tracker Morningstar, and Thakor advises against buying mutual funds with an expense ratio of more than 1 percent.

If you do go the actively managed route, Granucci recommends a globally balanced mutual fund, which is diversified in stocks, bonds and cash and contains domestic and international investments.

Index funds. "If the goal is to try to achieve a lot of diversification and build a portfolio that you can more or less kind of set and forget, it's hard to beat index funds," says Christine Benz, director of personal finance for Morningstar.

With index funds, you don't have the opportunity to beat the market, but you can keep up with the market, "which is not a bad place to be given that most active fund managers do not outperform their benchmarks over long periods of time," Benz adds.

Thakor points out that index funds are the healthiest option on the menu – without organic food prices. "Index funds are the financial equivalent of a superfood like chia seeds or kale," she says. "Depending on what type you pick … you can get exposure to literally thousands of stock and bond issues at a very nominal fee." The average expense ratio for stock index funds is 0.75 percent, according to Morningstar.

[Read: 10 Great Ways to Pack Your Portfolio With Blue Chips.]

ETFs. Mutual funds and ETFs are very similar. "When you buy one share of an ETF or one share of a mutual fund, you're buying a small piece of a lot of different investments that make up that fund," Granucci explains. "The difference is how they are managed."

There's no active management with ETFs, so if you're thinking about investing in a handful, be prepared to rebalance your portfolio at least once a year (mutual fund portfolios should be rebalanced, too). Advantages include costs that are a lot lower than those of mutual funds (Morningstar reports ETFs have an average annual fee of 0.57 percent) and no minimum investment requirements. While mutual funds may demand initial investments of $1,000 or $3,000, ETFs – which are traded on exchanges and fluctuate in price during the day – cost only their current trading price, like stocks.

ETFs offer exposure to asset classes ranging from bonds to domestic and international stocks, and even alternative investments like commodities. "Instead of trying to do one fund that's going to do it all, you might need to find three or four ETFs that are going to fill all the different buckets that you want to hit," Granucci says.

[Read: How to Avoid Getting Ripped Off By ETFs.]

Before diving in. You might be ready to put that $5,000 to work, but before you settle on one of the above investments, McBride points out three places where your money would be better spent:

1. Paying down high-interest debt.
2. Saving for retirement in a tax-advantaged account, such as a 401(k) or individual retirement account.
3. Starting an emergency savings fund that covers six months of living expenses.

"For the vast majority of Americans, tackling those three priorities is going to more than chew up that $5,000," he says.
And there's a reason why paying debt is at the top of the list: You'll get a higher risk-free rate of return by paying down credit card debt than you will investing in financial securities. As McBride says, "Paying off a 15 percent credit card balance is like earning 15 percent risk-free."

But let's assume you've paid off your debt, contribute to a 401(k) or IRA and have enough savings for a rainy day. Now you're ready to sit down at the table. The experts might have different tastes, but they all agree on one thing: You have to know what you're ordering.

In other words, if you don't understand what you're investing in, you might make some mistakes.

"The power of investing comes from compounded returns and time, and if you don't understand what you're doing and you're afraid to ask questions, when the inevitable hiccup comes in the market," Thakor says,